Аттический шлем. Аттический шлем
Аттический шлем — Википедия (с комментариями)
Материал из Википедии — свободной энциклопедии
Аттические шлемы — разновидность халкидского шлема, изготовленного ремесленной школой в Аттике.
Наносник небольшой, или обычно отсутствует. Относительно узкие лунообразные нащечники крепились на петлях, воины часто изображались в батальных сценах с откинутыми вверх нащечниками. В то время как халкидский шлем украшали часто султанами и перьями, на аттическом применяют архаичный карийский конный гребень. Роскошный гребень из конских волос услаждал владельца своей пышностью в те времена, когда безликие массовые армии еще не пришли на поле боя. На вазах богиня Афина всегда в шлеме коринфского или аттического типа. Аттические шлемы были мало распространены за пределами Афин, и прославились главным образом трудом афинских мастеров по росписи ваз. Известный современный автор Питер Конноли относит к аттическому типу халкидские шлемы с нащечниками на петлях, но без наносника, но такая квалификация не является общепринятой. Другие авторы вообще не выделяют аттические шлемы в отдельный класс.
Довольно часто аттическими называют все шлемы Древней Греции с характерным конским гребнем и открытым лицом. Конский гребень и плюмаж для украшения шлема ввели в моду карийцы в бытность их проживания на островах возле Крита примерно в середине II тысячелетия до н. э.[1] Никакой функциональной нагрузки гребень не нес, служил для украшения и визуальной идентификации воинов на поле боя. У спартанцев и римских центурионов плюмаж служил знаком воинского звания и подразделения. Литературный источник, «Илиада» Гомера поэтически так описывает конские гребни:[2]Шлем на могучую голову ярко блестящий надвинул С гривою конскою; гребень ужасный над ним волновался…
 | Изображения шлемов на афинских вазах 1-й половины V в. до н. э. Каждый шлем неповторим в деталях. Ярко начищенная бронза сияла на солнце, но по прихоти владельца шлем красили черным лаком или, для серебристого оттенка, покрывали оловом. Часто встречается тонкая гравировка поверхности, также накладывались детали орнамента. |
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– Да ведь вы очень дружны с Болконским, верно что нибудь передать хочет, – сказал граф. – Ах, Боже мой, Боже мой! Как всё хорошо было! – И взявшись за редкие виски седых волос, граф вышел из комнаты. Марья Дмитриевна объявила Наташе о том, что Анатоль был женат. Наташа не хотела верить ей и требовала подтверждения этого от самого Пьера. Соня сообщила это Пьеру в то время, как она через коридор провожала его в комнату Наташи. Наташа, бледная, строгая сидела подле Марьи Дмитриевны и от самой двери встретила Пьера лихорадочно блестящим, вопросительным взглядом. Она не улыбнулась, не кивнула ему головой, она только упорно смотрела на него, и взгляд ее спрашивал его только про то: друг ли он или такой же враг, как и все другие, по отношению к Анатолю. Сам по себе Пьер очевидно не существовал для нее. – Он всё знает, – сказала Марья Дмитриевна, указывая на Пьера и обращаясь к Наташе. – Он пускай тебе скажет, правду ли я говорила. Наташа, как подстреленный, загнанный зверь смотрит на приближающихся собак и охотников, смотрела то на того, то на другого. – Наталья Ильинична, – начал Пьер, опустив глаза и испытывая чувство жалости к ней и отвращения к той операции, которую он должен был делать, – правда это или не правда, это для вас должно быть всё равно, потому что… – Так это не правда, что он женат! – Нет, это правда. – Он женат был и давно? – спросила она, – честное слово? Пьер дал ей честное слово. – Он здесь еще? – спросила она быстро. – Да, я его сейчас видел. Она очевидно была не в силах говорить и делала руками знаки, чтобы оставили ее.wiki-org.ru
Аттический шлем — Википедия (с комментариями)
Материал из Википедии — свободной энциклопедии
Ошибка создания миниатюры: Файл не найден
Гоплит в аттическом (халкидском) шлеме. Древнегреческая ваза ок. 475 г. до н. э.Наносник небольшой, или обычно отсутствует. Относительно узкие лунообразные нащечники крепились на петлях, воины часто изображались в батальных сценах с откинутыми вверх нащечниками. В то время как халкидский шлем украшали часто султанами и перьями, на аттическом применяют архаичный карийский конный гребень. Роскошный гребень из конских волос услаждал владельца своей пышностью в те времена, когда безликие массовые армии еще не пришли на поле боя. На вазах богиня Афина всегда в шлеме коринфского или аттического типа. Аттические шлемы были мало распространены за пределами Афин, и прославились главным образом трудом афинских мастеров по росписи ваз. Известный современный автор Питер Конноли относит к аттическому типу халкидские шлемы с нащечниками на петлях, но без наносника, но такая квалификация не является общепринятой. Другие авторы вообще не выделяют аттические шлемы в отдельный класс.
Довольно часто аттическими называют все шлемы Древней Греции с характерным конским гребнем и открытым лицом. Конский гребень и плюмаж для украшения шлема ввели в моду карийцы в бытность их проживания на островах возле Крита примерно в середине II тысячелетия до н. э.[1] Никакой функциональной нагрузки гребень не нес, служил для украшения и визуальной идентификации воинов на поле боя. У спартанцев и римских центурионов плюмаж служил знаком воинского звания и подразделения. Литературный источник, «Илиада» Гомера поэтически так описывает конские гребни:[2]Шлем на могучую голову ярко блестящий надвинул С гривою конскою; гребень ужасный над ним волновался…
| Ошибка создания миниатюры: Файл не найден | Изображения шлемов на афинских вазах 1-й половины V в. до н. э. Каждый шлем неповторим в деталях. Ярко начищенная бронза сияла на солнце, но по прихоти владельца шлем красили черным лаком или, для серебристого оттенка, покрывали оловом. Часто встречается тонкая гравировка поверхности, также накладывались детали орнамента. |
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Девушка кивнула. – Но не каждый это может, конечно же. Нужно очень большое мужество, чтобы осмелиться прервать свою жизнь... Мне вот не хватило... Но дедушке этого не занимать! – гордо улыбнулась Анна. Я видела, как сильно она любила своего доброго, мудрого деда... И на какое-то коротенькое мгновение в моей душе стало очень пусто и печально. Как будто снова в неё вернулась глубокая, неизлечимая тоска... – У меня тоже был очень необычный дедушка... – вдруг очень тихо прошептала я. Но горечь тут же знакомо сдавила горло, и продолжить я уже не смогла. – Ты очень его любила? – участливо спросила девушка. Я только кивнула в ответ, внутри возмущаясь на себя за такую «непростительную» слабость... – Кем был твой дед, девочка? – ласково спросил старец. – Я не вижу его. – Я не знаю, кем он был... И никогда не знала. Но, думаю, что не видите вы его потому, что после смерти он перешёл жить в меня... И, наверное, как раз потому я и могу делать то, что делаю... Хотя могу, конечно же, ещё очень мало... – Нет, девонька, он всего лишь помог тебе «открыться». А делаешь всё ты и твоя сущность. У тебя большой Дар, милая. – Чего же стоит этот Дар, если я не знаю о нём почти ничего?!. – горько воскликнула я. – Если не смогла даже спасти сегодня своих друзей?!. Я расстроенно плюхнулась на пушистое сидение, даже не замечая его «искристой» красоты, вся сама на себя разобиженная за свою беспомощность, и вдруг почувствовала, как по предательски заблестели глаза... А вот уж плакать в присутствии этих удивительных, мужественных людей мне ни за что не хотелось!.. Поэтому, чтобы хоть как-то сосредоточиться, я начала мысленно «перемалывать» крупинки неожиданно полученной информации, чтобы, опять же, спрятать их бережно в своей памяти, не потеряв при этом ни одного важного слова, не упустив какую-нибудь умную мысль... – Как погибли Ваши друзья? – спросила девушка-ведьма. Стелла показала картинку. – Они могли и не погибнуть... – грустно покачал головой старец. – В этом не было необходимости. – Как это – не было?!. – тут же возмущённо подскочила взъерошенная Стелла. – Они ведь спасали других хороших людей! У них не было выбора! – Прости меня, малая, но ВЫБОР ЕСТЬ ВСЕГДА. Важно только уметь правильно выбрать... Вот погляди – и старец показал то, что минуту назад показывала ему Стелла.Аттический шлем - WikiVisually
1. Гоплит – Hoplites were citizen-soldiers of Ancient Greek city-states who were primarily armed with spears and shields. Hoplite soldiers utilized the phalanx formation in order to be effective in war with fewer soldiers, the hoplites were primarily represented by free citizens—propertied farmers and artisans—who were able to afford the bronze armour suit and weapons. Hoplites were not professional soldiers and often lacked sufficient military training, although some states did maintain a small elite professional unit, hoplite soldiers were relied on heavily and made up the bulk of ancient Greek armies of the time. In the 8th or 7th century BC, Greek armies adopted a military innovation known as the phalanx formation, the formation proved successful in defeating the Persians when employed by the Athenians at the Battle of Marathon in 490 BC during the First Greco-Persian War. The phalanx was also employed by the Greeks at the Battle of Thermopylae in 480 BC. The word hoplite derives from hoplon, the name for the type of shield used by the soldiers, however, the shield was more commonly known as an aspis, so the word hopla may refer to the soldiers weapons or even their full armament. In the modern Hellenic Army, the word hoplite is used to refer to an infantryman, the fragmented political structure of Ancient Greece, with many competing city-states, increased the frequency of conflict, but at the same time limited the scale of warfare. Limited manpower did not allow most Greek city-states to form armies which could operate for long periods because they were generally not formed from professional soldiers. Most soldiers had careers as farmers or workers and returned to these professions after the campaign, all hoplites were expected to take part in any military campaign when called for duty by leaders of the state. This inevitably reduced the duration of campaigns and often resulted in the campaign season being restricted to one summer. Armies generally marched directly to their destination, and in cases the battlefield was agreed to by the contestants in advance. Battles were fought on ground, and hoplites preferred to fight with high terrain on both sides of the phalanx so the formation could not be flanked. An example of this was the Battle of Thermopylae, where the Spartans specifically chose a narrow pass to make their stand against the massive Persian army. The vastly outnumbered Greeks held off the Persians for seven days, when battles occurred, they were usually set piece and intended to be decisive. The battlefield would be flat and open to facilitate phalanx warfare and these battles were usually short and required a high degree of discipline. At least in the classical period, when cavalry was present, its role was restricted to protection of the flanks of the phalanx, pursuit of a defeated enemy. Light infantry and missile troops took part in the battles but their role was less important, before the the opposing phalanxes engaged, the light troops would skirmish with the enemies light forces, and then protect the flanks and rear of the phalanx. The military structure created by the Spartans was a phalanx formation
2. Халкидский шлем – A Chalcidian helmet or Chalcidian type helmet was a helmet made of bronze and worn by ancient warriors of the Hellenic world, especially popular in Greece in the fifth and fourth centuries BC. The helmet was also extensively in the Greek parts of Italy in the same period. The helmet is so-called because it was first, and is most commonly, in fact, it is not known whether the helmet originated in Chalcis, indeed, it is not even known whether the pottery in question was Chalcidian. The helmet appears to have been a development of the Corinthian helmet, its improvements in design giving the wearer better hearing and vision, resulting in a lighter and less bulky helmet. It consisted of a dome, and below that, generally inset from the top dome, a pair of cheek pieces. In the front, between the two pieces, was a small nasal bar to protect the wearers nose. The helmet could be one piece, or the cheek pieces could be attached separately by hinges. In Italy, the helmet with fixed cheek pieces is referred to as Chalcidian, the helmet would commonly have a hole pierced on each cheek piece or elsewhere in order to accept an inner lining which was made of leather. Adornments such as combs and other protuberances were usually placed on the top of the helmet, by the time of Alexander the Great, the helmet was still worn by armoured soldiers, especially Hoplites, the spear-armed heavy infantrymen. It is likely some of the Macedonian soldiers who ruled the rest of Greece. The helmet is thought to have developed in turn into the Attic helmet which is iconic of classical soldiers, the Cultural Development in North Western Lucania C. Greek Hoplite, 480-323 BC, 480-323 BC
3. Аттика – Attica is a historical region that encompasses the city of Athens, the capital of Greece. The historical region is centered on the Attic peninsula, which projects into the Aegean Sea, the modern administrative region of Attica is more extensive than the historical region and includes the Saronic Islands, Cythera, and the municipality of Troizinia on the Peloponnesian mainland. The history of Attica is tightly linked with that of Athens, Attica is a triangular peninsula jutting into the Aegean Sea. It is naturally divided to the north from Boeotia by the 10 mi long Cithaeron mountain range, to the west, it is bordered by the sea and the canal of Corinth. The Saronic Gulf lies to the south, and the island of Euboea lies off the north, mountains separate the peninsula into the plains of Pedias, Mesogaia, and Thriasion. The mountains of Attica are the Hymettus, the portion of the Geraneia, the Parnitha, the Aigaleo. Four mountains—Aigaleo, Parnitha, Penteli and Hymettus —delineate the hilly plain on which the Athens-Piraeus metroplex now spreads, Athens water reservoir, Lake Marathon, is an artificial lake created by damming in 1920. Pine and fir forests cover the area around Parnitha, Hymettus, Penteli, Myrrhinous and Laurium are forested with pine trees, whereas the rest are covered by shrubbery. The Kifisos is the longest river of Attica, according to Plato, Atticas ancient boundaries were fixed by the Isthmus, and, toward the continent, they extended as far as the heights of Cithaeron and Parnes. The boundary line came down toward the sea, bounded by the district of Oropus on the right, during antiquity, the Athenians boasted about being autochthonic, which is to say that they were the original inhabitants of the area and had not moved to Attica from another place. The traditions current in the classical period recounted that, during the Greek Dark Ages, Attica had become the refuge of the Ionians, who belonged to a tribe from the northern Peloponnese. Supposedly, the Ionians had been forced out of their homeland by the Achaeans, supposedly, the Ionians integrated with the ancient Atticans, who, afterward, considered themselves part of the Ionian tribe and spoke the Ionian dialect. Many Ionians later left Attica to colonize the Aegean coast of Asia Minor, during the Mycenaean period, the Atticans lived in autonomous agricultural societies. The main places where prehistoric remains were found are Marathon, Rafina, Nea Makri, Brauron, Thorikos, Agios Kosmas, Eleusis, Menidi, Markopoulo, Spata, Aphidnae, all of these settlements flourished during the Mycenaean period. According to tradition, Attica comprised twelve small communities during the reign of Cecrops, strabo assigns these the names of Cecropia, Tetrapolis, Epacria, Decelea, Eleusis, Aphidna, Thoricus, Brauron, Cytherus, Sphettus, Cephisia, and possibly Phaleron. These were said to have been incorporated in an Athenian state during the reign of Theseus. Modern historians consider it likely that the communities were progressively incorporated into an Athenian state during the 8th. Until the 6th century BC, aristocratic families lived independent lives in the suburbs, only after Peisistratoss tyranny and the reforms implemented by Cleisthenes did the local communities lose their independence and succumb to the central government in Athens
4. Кария – Caria was a region of western Anatolia extending along the coast from mid-Ionia south to Lycia and east to Phrygia. The Ionian and Dorian Greeks colonized the west of it and joined the Carian population in forming Greek-dominated states there, the inhabitants of Caria, known as Carians, had arrived there before the Greeks. The Carians did speak an Anatolian language, known as Carian, cramers detailed catalog of Carian towns in classical Greece is based entirely on ancient sources. The multiple names of towns and geomorphic features, such as bays and headlands, coastal Caria begins with Didyma south of Miletus, but Miletus had been placed in the pre-Greek Caria. South of it is the Iassicus Sinus and the towns of Iassus and Bargylia, giving a name of Bargyleticus Sinus to Güllük Körfezi, and nearby Cindye. After Bargylia is Caryanda or Caryinda, and then on the Bodrum Peninsula Myndus,56 miles miles from Miletus, in the vicinity is Naziandus, exact location unknown. On the tip of the Bodrum Peninsula is Termera, and on the other side Ceramicus Sinus and it was formerly crowded with numerous towns. Halicarnassus, a Dorian Greek city, was planted there among six Carian towns, Theangela, Sibde, Medmasa, Euranium, Pedasa or Pedasum and these with Myndus and Synagela constitute the eight Lelege towns. Also on the north coast of the Ceramicus Sinus is Ceramus and Bargasus, on the south of the Ceramicus Sinus is the Carian Chersonnese, or Triopium Promontory, also called Doris after the Dorian colony of Cnidus. At the base of the peninsula is Bybassus or Bybastus from which an earlier names and it was now Acanthus and Doulopolis. South of the Carian Chersonnese is Doridis Sinus, the Gulf of Doris, there are three bays in it, Bubassius, Thymnias and Schoenus, the last enclosing the town of Hyda. In the gulf somewhere are Euthene or Eutane, Pitaeum, on the south shore is the Cynossema, or Onugnathos Promontory, opposite Symi. South of there is the Rhodian Peraea, a section of the coast under Rhodes and it includes Loryma or Larymna in Oedimus Bay, Gelos, Tisanusa, the headland of Paridion, Panydon or Pandion with Physicus, Amos, Physca or Physcus, also called Cressa. Beyond Cressa is the Calbis River, on the other side is Caunus, with Pisilis or Pilisis and Pyrnos between. Then follow some cities that some assign to Lydia and some to Caria, Calynda on the Indus River, Crya, Carya, Carysis or Cari and Alina in the Gulf of Glaucus, other Carian towns in the gulf are Clydae or Lydae and Aenus. At the base of the east end of Latmus near Euromus, the name Chrysaoris once applied to all of Caria, moreover, Euromus was originally settled from Lycia. Its towns are Tauropolis, Plarassa and Chrysaoris and these were all incorporated later into Mylasa. Connected to the latter by a way is Labranda
5. Афина – Athena or Athene, often given the epithet Pallas, is the goddess of wisdom, craft, and war in ancient Greek religion and mythology. Minerva is the Roman goddess identified with Athena, Athena is known for her calm temperament, as she moves slowly to anger. She is noted to have fought for just reasons. Athena is portrayed as a companion of heroes and is the patron goddess of heroic endeavour. She is the patroness of Athens. The Athenians founded the Parthenon on the Acropolis of her city, Athens. Veneration of Athena was so persistent that archaic myths about her were recast to adapt to cultural changes, in her role as a protector of the city, many people throughout the Greek world worshipped Athena as Athena Polias. While the city of Athens and the goddess Athena essentially bear the same name, Athena is associated with Athens, a plural name, because it was the place where she presided over her sisterhood, the Athenai, in earliest times. Mycenae was the city where the Goddess was called Mykene, at Thebes she was called Thebe, and the city again a plural, Thebae. Similarly, at Athens she was called Athena, and the city Athenae, Athena had a special relationship with Athens, as is shown by the etymological connection of the names of the goddess and the city. According to mythical lore, she competed with Poseidon and she won by creating the olive tree, the Athenians would accept her gift and name the city after her. In history, the citizens of Athens built a statue of Athena as a temple to the goddess, which had piercing eyes, a helmet on her head, attired with an aegis or cuirass, and an extremely long spear. It also had a shield with the head of the Gorgon on it. A large snake accompanied her and she held Nike, the goddess of victory, therefore, Mylonas believes that Athena was a Mycenaean creation. On the other hand, Nilsson claims that she was the goddess of the palace who protected the king, a-ta-no-dju-wa-ja is also found in Linear A Minoan, the final part being regarded as the Linear A Minoan equivalent of the Linear B Mycenaean di-u-ja or di-wi-ja. Divine Athena also was a weaver and the deity of crafts, whether her name is attested in Eteocretan or not will have to wait for decipherment of Linear A. Perhaps, however, the name Theonoe may mean she who knows divine things better than others. Thus for Plato her name was to be derived from Greek Ἀθεονόα, Plato also noted that the citizens of Sais in Egypt worshipped a goddess whose Egyptian name was Neith, and which was identified with Athena. Neith was the war goddess and huntress deity of the Egyptians since the ancient Pre-Dynastic period, in addition, ancient Greek myths reported that Athena had visited many mythological places such as Libyas Triton River in North Africa and the Phlegraean plain
6. Коннолли, Питер – Peter Connolly FSA was a renowned British scholar of the ancient world, Greek and Roman military equipment historian, reconstructional archaeologist and illustrator. He was a contributor to such periodicals as the Journal of Roman Military Equipment Studies. Connolly studied at the Brighton College of Arts and Crafts and wrote his first book, The Roman Army and he became a member of the Society of Antiquaries in 1984 and a year later was awarded an honorary research fellowship at the Institute of Archaeology of the University College London. Works are both written and illustrated by Connolly unless otherwise noted, crosher, Judith, The Greeks, Macdonald Educational. Connolly, Peter, The Roman Army, Macdonald Educational, Connolly, Peter, The Greek Armies, Macdonald Educational. Connolly, Peter, Hannibal and the Enemies of Rome, Macdonald Educational, Connolly, Peter, Armies of the Crusades, Macdonald Educational. Connolly, Peter, Greece and Rome at War, Macdonald Phoebus Ltd, revised 1998 edition, London, Greenhill Books and Pennsylvania, Stackpole Books. Reprinted as The Ancient Greece of Odysseus,1998, Connolly, Peter, Tiberius Claudius Maximus, The Legionary, Oxford University Press. Connolly, Peter, Tiberius Claudius Maximus, The Cavalryman, Oxford University Press, hackett, John, Warfare in the Ancient World, Facts On File. Coe, Michael, Swords and Hilt Weapons, Grove Press, Connolly, Peter, The Roman Fort, Oxford University Press. Burrell, Roy, The Romans, Oxford University Press, Connolly, Peter, Greek Legends, The Stories, the Evidence, Simon & Schuster. Burrell, Roy, Oxford First Ancient History, Oxford University Press, Connolly, Peter, The Hutchinson Dictionary of Ancient and Medieval Warfare, Routledge. Connolly, Peter and Hazel Dodge, The Ancient City, Life in Classical Athens & Rome, Connolly, Peter, Ancient Greece, Oxford University Press. Connolly, Peter, Ancient Rome, Oxford University Press, Connolly, Peter, Colosseum, Romes Arena of Death, BBC Books. Works by or about Peter Connolly in libraries
7. Плюмаж – The hackle is a clipped feather plume that is attached to a military headdress. The colour of the hackle varies from regiment to regiment, the modern hackle has its origins in a much longer plume, originally referred to by its Scots name, heckle, which was commonly attached to the feather bonnet worn by Highland regiments. The smaller version originated in a regimental emblem adopted by the 42nd Royal Highland Regiment, in the modern British Army, there is a single regiment of fusiliers, plus a battalion of a large regiment. There were several other regiments which have been amalgamated and no longer exist. Alternatively, it may be a gesture to a former Lowland regiment, the Cameronians, who went into suspended animation in 1968. The Regimental Band of the Royal Regiment of Scotland does not wear the hackle, however, the Highland Band of the Royal Regiment of Scotland continues to wear the red hackle with the Tam o Shanter. Tradition holds that the black hackle originated as a Scottish tradition of wearing a feather in your hat to signify you have an ongoing quarrel with someone. Former non-fusilier regiments, now amalgamated, which wore the hackle were,40 Regiment, Royal Corps of Signals, Navy blue, sky blue
8. Гомер – Homer is the name ascribed by the ancient Greeks to the semi-legendary author of the Iliad and the Odyssey, two epic poems which are the central works of Greek literature. The Odyssey focuses on the home of Odysseus, king of Ithaca. Many accounts of Homers life circulated in classical antiquity, the most widespread being that he was a bard from Ionia. The modern scholarly consensus is that these traditions do not have any historical value, the Homeric question - by whom, when, where and under what circumstances were the Iliad and Odyssey composed - continues to be debated. Broadly speaking, modern scholarly opinion on the authorship question falls into two camps, one group holds that most of the Iliad and the Odyssey is the work of a single poet of genius. The other considers the Homeric poems to be the crystallization of a process of working and re-working by many contributors and it is generally accepted that the poems were composed at some point around the late eighth or early seventh century B. C. Most researchers believe that the poems were transmitted orally. The Homeric epics were the greatest influence on ancient Greek culture and education, to Plato, the chronological period of Homer depends on the meaning to be assigned to the word Homer. Was Homer a single person, an imaginary person representing a group of poets and this information is often called the world of Homer. The Homeric period would in that cover a number of historical periods, especially the Mycenaean Age. Considered word-for-word, the texts as we know them are the product of the scholars of the last three centuries. Each edition of the Iliad or Odyssey is a different, as the editors rely on different manuscripts and fragments. The term accuracy reveals a belief in an original uniform text. The manuscripts of the work currently available date to no earlier than the 10th century. These are at the end of a missing thousand-year chain of copies made as each generation of manuscripts disintegrated or were lost or destroyed and these numerous manuscripts are so similar that a single original can be postulated. The time gap in the chain is bridged by the scholia, or notes, on the existing manuscripts, librarian of the Library of Alexandria, he had noticed a wide divergence in the works attributed to Homer, and was trying to restore a more authentic copy. He had collected several manuscripts, which he named, the Sinopic, the one he selected for correction was the koine, which Murray translates as the Vulgate. Aristarchus was known for his selection of material
9. Кираса – A cuirass is a piece of armour, formed of a single or multiple pieces of metal or other rigid material which covers the front of the torso. In a suit of armour, the cuirass was generally connected to a back piece, cuirass could also refer to the complete torso-protecting armour. As parts of the military equipment of classic antiquity, cuirasses and corsets of bronze, iron. Secondary protection for the breast was worn in earlier times by men-at-arms in addition to mail hauberks and it was not until the 14th century that the plate armour became an established part of medieval armour. The Roman emperor Galba donned a cuirass just before he went to his death. Suetonius records in 12 Caesars that, As was offering sacrifice on the morning before he was killed and he did however put on a linen cuirass, though he openly declared that it would afford little protection against so many swords. The cuirass was almost universally worn throughout its lifespan as a form of armour, the cuirass was always made long enough to rest on the hips. If it had been suspended by the shoulders, its weight would have exhausted its wearer. In the second half of the 15th century, the cuirass was occasionally superseded by the brigandine jacket, in essence, the brigandine jacket was constructed of metal plates sewn into a fabric jacket. About 1550, the breast-piece of the cuirass was characterized by a central ridge, called the tapul. Somewhat later, the tapul was moved lower on the breast, eventually, the profile of the plate began to resemble a pea pod and, as such, was referred to as the peascod cuirass. Corslets provided with both breast and back pieces were worn by foot-soldiers in the 17th century, while their comrades were equipped in heavier and stronger cuirasses. These defenses continued in use longer than any single piece of armour. Both the French and German heavy cavalry wore cuirasses in parade leading up to World War I, in the early part of that conflict, they painted their cuirasses black and wore canvas protection covers over the neo-Roman style helmets. Some years after Waterloo, certain historical cuirasses were taken from their repose in the Tower of London and adapted for service by the Life Guards, for parade purposes, the Prussian Gardes du Corps and other corps wore cuirasses of richly decorated leather. During the Heian period, Japanese armourers started to use leather as a material, by the end of the Heian period, the Japanese cuirass had arrived at the shape recognized as part of iconic samurai armor. Scales of iron and leather, bound together by silk lace, were used to construct samurai armours, the introduction of firearms to Japan in 1543 resulted in the development of a cuirass constructed of solid iron plates. The use of the samurai cuirass lasted until the 1860s when an army using conventional uniforms was established
10. Линоторакс – The linothorax is a type of upper body armor used by the ancient Greeks, as well as other Hellenic kingdoms including Macedonia, from the Mycenaean period through the Hellenistic period. The modern term linothorax is based on the Greek λινοθώραξ, which means wearing a breastplate of linen, the term thorax was the word for breastplate during this era and was traditionally made of metal in most contexts. The linothorax were made of linen glued in layers with animal fat, the earliest attested account of a linothorax used for battle is recorded in Book 2 of Homers Iliad. It is worn by Ajax the Lesser and is described in brief, Homer, composing stories long before the great armies of Athens, Thebes, Sparta and Macedon, surely understood what the armor was. However, the extent to which it was used can not be determined as the texts were not accurate accounts of specific time periods. An educated guess can be made, however, based on its use by Alexander the Great, and its mention by other such as Herodotus, Livy, Strabo. This could have been due to the price, lesser weight. Its high point in vase paintings, sculptural reliefs and artistic depictions corresponds with the time of the Persian Wars, by the time of the Peloponnesian War it was still used, and continued to seemingly flourish well into the Hellenistic period. Very few details of the construction are found in Homer and other authors of this era. The linen fabric was reinforced by a sheet around the waist, usually in a scale mail style. Metal plates or flaps called pteryges were protecting various parts of the body, a zoster was a belt, probably of leather with metal plates, worn around the waist over the other parts of the cuirass. The actual method of constructing a linothorax is unknown as no example has survived from ancient times, the only piece of armor that resembles the linothorax was discovered in a tomb in Vergina, Northern Greece. This armor, which was most probably worn for ceremony, was constructed from iron with gold embellishments. It is probably a copy of a linothorax. Since visual evidence is limited to paintings and sculptural reliefs, rather than actual surviving models, modern scholars can only guess at its makeup. There are a number of paintings that show what appear to be metal scales covering the armor. The type of material went into the construction of the linothorax is still hotly debated by academics. Some of the common theories of its construction involve laminated or quilting many layers of linen fabric
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